Abstract
This conceptual article examines how multimodal vocabulary instruction for English language learners (ELLs) can be designed and evaluated across successive generations of educational technology, from interactive whiteboards (IWBs) to artificial intelligence (AI)-supported tools. The article is organized around three guiding questions: what design features make technology-mediated vocabulary instruction effective for ELLs; how those features have persisted across platforms; and what affordances and risks AI-supported tools introduce. The argument is grounded in a conceptual framework that integrates research on robust vocabulary instruction, the cognitive theory of multimedia learning, and translanguaging. A qualitative doctoral study of IWB-based vocabulary instruction in a multilingual Gulf-region elementary school (Martin, 2015) is presented in detail and used as an empirical touchstone. Building on the framework and the case, the article formalizes a Design Continuity Framework comprising five platform-independent design constants (coordinated multimodal input, interactive retrieval and production, contextual embedding, actionable feedback, and spaced review) operating under two implementation conditions (teacher mediation and equitable access). Meta-analytic evidence from mobile-assisted, game-based, and chatbot-assisted vocabulary learning is then read through this framework as a cross-platform comparison. The article closes with an expanded treatment of translanguaging, a substantive discussion of vocabulary assessment, and implications for teachers (including AI literacy), instructional designers, researchers, and policymakers.
- Almarashdi, H. S., Abu Khurma, O., AlArabi, K., Abulebdeh, E., & Yousef, J. (2026). AI-enhanced STEM education: A bibliometric study of research trends toward achieving sustainable development goals. European Journal of STEM Education, 11(1), 16. https://doi.org/10.20897/ejsteme/18190
- August, D., Carlo, M., Dressler, C., & Snow, C. (2005). The critical role of vocabulary development for English language learners. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 20(1), 50–57. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-5826.2005.00120.x
- Beck, I. L., McKeown, M. G., & Kucan, L. (2013). Bringing words to life: Robust vocabulary instruction (2nd ed.). Guilford Press.
- Carlo, M. S., August, D., McLaughlin, B., Snow, C. E., Dressler, C., Lippman, D. N., Lively, T. J., & White, C. E. (2004). Closing the gap: Addressing the vocabulary needs of English-language learners in bilingual and mainstream classrooms. Reading Research Quarterly, 39(2), 188–215. https://doi.org/10.1598/RRQ.39.2.3
- Cenoz, J., & Gorter, D. (2021). Pedagogical translanguaging. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009029384
- Chun, D. M., & Plass, J. L. (1996). Effects of multimedia annotations on vocabulary acquisition. The Modern Language Journal, 80(2), 183–198. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4781.1996.tb01159.x
- Duan, H., Yunus, M. M., & Ismail, H. H. (2026). Mobile-assisted English vocabulary learning: A systematic review of platforms, learning outcomes, and implications (2019–2025). International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research, 25(2), 65–90. https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.25.2.4
- Echevarria, J., Vogt, M. E., & Short, D. J. (2017). Making content comprehensible for English learners: The SIOP model (5th ed.). Pearson.
- García, O., & Wei, L. (2014). Translanguaging: Language, bilingualism and education. Palgrave Pivot. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137385765
- Golonka, E. M., Bowles, A. R., Frank, V. M., Richardson, D. L., & Freynik, S. (2014). Technologies for foreign language learning: A review of technology types and their effectiveness. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 27(1), 70–105. https://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2012.700315
- Graves, M. F. (2006). The vocabulary book: Learning and instruction. Teachers College Press.
- Halpern, B., Aydin, H., & Halpern, C. (2025). Seeing multilingual learners through media and AI: Pre-service teachers’ perceptions in an ESOL course. Journal of Interdisciplinary Research in Artificial Intelligence and Society, 1(1), 4. https://doi.org/10.20897/jirais/17647
- Higgins, S., Beauchamp, G., & Miller, D. (2007). Reviewing the literature on interactive whiteboards. Learning, Media and Technology, 32(3), 213–225. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439880701511040
- Kasneci, E., Sessler, K., Küchemann, S., Bannert, M., Dementieva, D., Fischer, F., Gasser, U., Groh, G., Günnemann, S., Hüllermeier, E., Krusche, S., Kutyniok, G., Michaeli, T., Nerdel, C., Pfeffer, J., Poquet, O., Sailer, M., Schmidt, A., Seidel, T., ... Kasneci, G. (2023). ChatGPT for good? On opportunities and challenges of large language models for education. Learning and Individual Differences, 103, Article 102274. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2023.102274
- Katz, N. (2026). Digital inequality in context: A socio-technical analysis of Arab students’ remote learning in Israel. Asia Pacific Journal of Education and Society, 14(1), 6. https://doi.org/10.20897/apjes/17975
- Kohnke, L., Moorhouse, B. L., & Zou, D. (2023). ChatGPT for language teaching and learning. RELC Journal, 54(2), 537–550. https://doi.org/10.1177/00336882231162868
- Lin, J.-J., & Lin, H. (2019). Mobile-assisted ESL/EFL vocabulary learning: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 32(8), 878–919. https://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2018.1541359
- Mahdi, H. S. (2018). Effectiveness of mobile devices on vocabulary learning: A meta-analysis. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 56(1), 134–154. https://doi.org/10.1177/0735633117698826
- Martin, C., Jr. (2015). Teaching vocabulary development using interactive whiteboards to third grade ELL students in the United Arab Emirates [Doctoral dissertation, University of Florida].
- Mayer, R. E. (2020). Multimedia learning (3rd ed.). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781316941355
- Mayer, R. E., & Moreno, R. (2003). Nine ways to reduce cognitive load in multimedia learning. Educational Psychologist, 38(1), 43–52. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15326985EP3801_6
- Nation, I. S. P. (2013). Learning vocabulary in another language (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139858656
- Ng, D. T. K., Leung, J. K. L., Chu, S. K. W., & Qiao, M. S. (2021). Conceptualizing AI literacy: An exploratory review. Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence, 2, 100041. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.caeai.2021.100041
- Plass, J. L., Chun, D. M., Mayer, R. E., & Leutner, D. (1998). Supporting visual and verbal learning preferences in a second-language multimedia learning environment. Journal of Educational Psychology, 90(1), 25–36. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.90.1.25
- Read, J. (2000). Assessing vocabulary. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511732942
- Schmitt, N. (2008). Review article: Instructed second language vocabulary learning. Language Teaching Research, 12(3), 329–363. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362168808089921
- Simonnet, E., Loiseau, M., & Lavoué, É. (2025). A systematic literature review of technology-assisted vocabulary learning. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 41(1), e13096. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcal.13096
- Sweller, J., van Merriënboer, J. J. G., & Paas, F. (2019). Cognitive architecture and instructional design: 20 years later. Educational Psychology Review, 31(2), 261–292. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-019-09465-5
- Tai, T.-Y., Chen, H. H.-J., & Todd, G. (2022). The impact of a virtual reality app on adolescent EFL learners' vocabulary learning. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 35(4), 892–917. https://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2020.1752735
- UNESCO. (2023). Guidance for generative AI in education and research. UNESCO. https://doi.org/10.54675/EWZM9535
- Wang, F., Cheung, A. C. K., Neitzel, A. J., & Chai, C. S. (2025). Does chatting with chatbots improve language learning performance? A meta-analysis of chatbot-assisted language learning. Review of Educational Research, 95(4), 623–660. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543241255621
- Webb, R. (2026). Post pandemic English language teacher development: A global perspective. European Journal of Education & Language Review, 2(1), 1. https://doi.org/10.20897/ejelr/17719
- Webb, S., Yanagisawa, A., & Uchihara, T. (2020). How effective are intentional vocabulary-learning activities? A meta-analysis. The Modern Language Journal, 104(4), 715–738. https://doi.org/10.1111/modl.12671
- Yu, A., & Trainin, G. (2022). A meta-analysis examining technology-assisted L2 vocabulary learning. ReCALL, 34(2), 235–252. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0958344021000239
- Zawacki-Richter, O., Marín, V. I., Bond, M., & Gouverneur, F. (2019). Systematic review of research on artificial intelligence applications in higher education: Where are the educators? International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education, 16, 39. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-019-0171-0
- Zhang, Z., & Huang, X. (2024). The impact of chatbots based on large language models on second language vocabulary acquisition. Heliyon, 10(3), e25370. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e25370
- Zou, D., Huang, Y., & Xie, H. (2021). Digital game-based vocabulary learning: Where are we and where are we going? Computer Assisted Language Learning, 34(5–6), 751–777. https://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2019.1640745
APA 7th edition
In-text citation: (Martin, 2026)
Reference: Martin, C. (2026). Multimodal vocabulary instruction for English language learners: From interactive whiteboards to artificial intelligence.
European Journal of Education & Language Review, 2(1), Article 4.
https://doi.org/10.20897/ejelr/18945
AMA 10th edition
In-text citation: (1), (2), (3), etc.
Reference: Martin C. Multimodal vocabulary instruction for English language learners: From interactive whiteboards to artificial intelligence.
European Journal of Education & Language Review. 2026;2(1), 4.
https://doi.org/10.20897/ejelr/18945
Chicago
In-text citation: (Martin, 2026)
Reference: Martin, Charles. "Multimodal vocabulary instruction for English language learners: From interactive whiteboards to artificial intelligence".
European Journal of Education & Language Review 2026 2 no. 1 (2026): 4.
https://doi.org/10.20897/ejelr/18945
Harvard
In-text citation: (Martin, 2026)
Reference: Martin, C. (2026). Multimodal vocabulary instruction for English language learners: From interactive whiteboards to artificial intelligence.
European Journal of Education & Language Review, 2(1), 4.
https://doi.org/10.20897/ejelr/18945
MLA
In-text citation: (Martin, 2026)
Reference: Martin, Charles "Multimodal vocabulary instruction for English language learners: From interactive whiteboards to artificial intelligence".
European Journal of Education & Language Review, vol. 2, no. 1, 2026, 4.
https://doi.org/10.20897/ejelr/18945
Vancouver
In-text citation: (1), (2), (3), etc.
Reference: Martin C. Multimodal vocabulary instruction for English language learners: From interactive whiteboards to artificial intelligence. European Journal of Education & Language Review. 2026;2(1):4.
https://doi.org/10.20897/ejelr/18945